Physicochemical and Protein Quality of Noodles Made with Wheat and Okara Flour Blends
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2016.829.836Keywords:
Noodles, Okara, substitution, wheatAbstract
Wheat flour was substituted with okara flour in order to obtain noodles with acceptable physicochemical, protein and sensory quality. Seven substitution levels were tested: 5, 16.25, 20, 27, 35, 38.75 and 50%. As the level of okara flour increased in the blends, the levels of protein, ash, fat and fibre contents of the noodles increased. Increased levels of okara however decreased cooking time but increased cooking losses. The total essential amino acids of noodles from the blends ranged from 26.07-40.37 g/100 g crude protein with histidine or from 43.38-46.49% of the total amino acids. Glutamic acid was the most abundant amino acid in the samples while leucine was the most abundant essential amino acid (5.52-7.86 g/100 g crude protein). Methionine was the limiting amino acid (0.80-1.38 g/100 g crude protein). The predicted protein efficiency ratio, biological value and essential amino acid index of the samples ranged from 1.81-2.88, 53.05-88.8 and 59.4-92.2%, respectively. Sensory evaluation revealed that noodles made with 5% okara and 95% wheat flour was the best in terms of all the attributes studied and was even better than the control (100% wheat). The study has shown that the utilization of okara flour will go a long way in not only increasing utilization of waste but will also encourage the development of variety and value added noodles.
References
AACC., 2000. Approved Methods of American Association of Cereal Chemists. 10th Edn., American Association of Cereal Chemists, USA., ISBN: 9781891127120, Pages: 1200.
Alsmeyer, R.H., A.E. Cunningham and M.L. Happich, 1974. Equations predict PER from amino acid analysis. Food Technol., 28: 34-38.
Altschull, A.M., 1968. Processed Plant Protein Foodstuff. In: Nigeria's Food and Feeding-Stuffs, Oyenuga, V.A. (Ed.). 3rd Edn., Ibadan University Press, Ibadan.
AOAC., 1990. Official Method of Analysis. 15th Edn., Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC., USA.
Bender, D.A., 2005. Essential amino acid index. A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/essential-amino-acid-index.
Benitez, L.V., 1989. Amino Acid and Fatty Acid Profiles in Aquaculture Nutrition Studies. In: Fish Nutrition Research in Asia: Proceedings of the Third Asian Fish Nutrition Network Meeting, De Silva, S.S. (Ed.). Asian Fish Society, Manila, Philippines, ISBN-13: 9789711022662, pp: 23-35.
Chillo, S., J. Laverse, P.M. Falcone, A. Protopapa and M.A. Del Nobile, 2008. Influence of the addition of buckwheat flour and durum wheat bran on spaghetti quality. J. Cereal Sci., 47: 144-152.
FAO. and WHO., 1973. Energy and protein requirements. WHO Technical Report Series No. 522, Geneva, Switzerland.
FAO. and WHO., 1990. Protein quality evaluation. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation Held in Bethesda, MD., USA., December 4-8, 1989, FAO., Rome, Italy.
FAO. and WHO., 1991. Protein quality evaluation in human diets. Report of a joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 51. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985. Energy and protein requirements: Report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU expert consultation. WHO Technical Report Series No. 724, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Fares, C. and V. Menga, 2012. Effects of toasting on the carbohydrate profile and antioxidant properties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) flour added to durum wheat pasta. Food Chem., 131: 1140-1148.
Friedman, M., 1996. Nutritional value of proteins from different food sources. A review. J. Agric. Food Chem., 44: 6-29.
Gallegos-Infante, J.A., N.E. Rocha-Guzman, R.F. Gonzalez-Laredo and L.A. Ochoa-Martinez and N. Corzo et al., 2010. Quality of spaghetti pasta containing Mexican common bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Food Chem., 119: 1544-1549.
Gimenez, M.A., S.R. Drago, D. de Greef, R.J. Gonzalez, M.O. Lobo and N.C. Samman, 2012. Rheological, functional and nutritional properties of wheat/broad bean (Vicia faba) flour blends for pasta formulation. Food Chem., 134: 200-206.
Ihekoronye, A.I. and P.O. Ngoddy, 1985. Integrated Food Science and Technology for the Tropics. Macmillian Publisher, London, United Kingdom, ISBN: 9780333388839, Pages: 386.
Ijarotimi, O.S. and O.O. Keshinro, 2012. Comparison between the amino acid, fatty acid, mineral and nutritional quality of raw, germinated and fermented African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) flour. Acta Sci. Polonorum Technologia Aliment., 11: 151-165.
Izydorczyk, M.S., S.L. Lagasse, D.W. Hatcher, J.E. Dexter and B.G. Rossnagel, 2005. The enrichment of Asian noodles with fiber-rich fractions derived from roller milling of hull-less barley. J. Sci. Food Agric., 85: 2094-2104.
Jin, M., J. Wu and X. Wu, 1994. A study on properties of starches used for starch noodle making processing. Proceedings of the International Symposium and Exhibition on New Approaches in the Production of Food Stuffs and Intermediate Products from Cereal Grains and Oil Seeds, November 16-19, 1994, Beijing, China, pp: 448-496.
Li, B., M. Qiao and F. Lu, 2012. Composition, nutrition and utilization of okara (soybean residue). Food Rev. Int., 28: 231-252.
Li, M., K.X. Zhu, X.N. Guo, K. Brijs and H.M. Zhou, 2014. Natural additives in wheat-based pasta and noodle products: Opportunities for enhanced nutritional and functional properties. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf., 13: 347-357.
Mune-Mune, M.A., S.R. Minka, I.L. Mbome and F.X. Etoa, 2011. Nutritional potential of bambara bean protein concentrate. Pak. J. Nutr., 10: 112-119.
Oser, B.L., 1959. An Integrated Essential Amino Acid Index for Predicting the Biological Value of Proteins. In: Protein and Amino Acid Nutrition, Albanese, A.A. (Ed.), Academic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, ISBN: 9780123956835, pp: 281-295.
Oyarekua, M.A. and E.I. Adeyeye, 2011. The amino acids profile of the brain and eyes of African giant pouch rat (Cricetomys gambianus). Agric. Biol. J. North Am., 2: 368-375.
Pagani, M.A., M. Lucisano, and M. Mariotti, 2007. Traditional Italian Products from Wheat and other Starchy Flours. In: Handbook of Food Products Manufacturing, Hui, Y.H. (Ed.). Wiley, New York, USA.
Paul, A.A.D., A.T. Southgate and J. Russel, 1980. First Supplement to Mccance and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods. HMSO, London and Elsevier, New York.
Steinke, F.H., E.E. Prescher and D.T. Hopkins, 1980. Nutritional evaluation (PER) of isolated soybean protein and combinations of food proteins. J. Food Sci., 45: 323-327.
Suruga, K., A. Kato, K. Kadokura, W. Hiruma, Y. Sekino, C.A.T. Buffington and K. Komatsu, 2011. "Okara" A New Preparation of Food Material with Antioxidant Activity and Dietary Fiber from Soybean. In: Soybean and Nutrition, El-Shemy, H. (Ed.). InTech Publisher, Croatia, ISBN: 978-953-307-536-5, pp: 311-326.
Torres, A., J. Frias, M. Granito and C. Vidal-Valverde, 2007. Germinated Cajanus cajan seeds as ingredients in pasta products: Chemical, biological and sensory evaluation. Food Chem., 101: 202-211.
Tudorica, C.M., V. Kuri and C.S. Brennan, 2002. Nutritional and physicochemical characteristics of dietary fiber enriched pasta. J. Agric. Food Chem., 50: 347-356.
Yadav, B.S., R.B. Yadav, M. Kumari and B.S. Khatkar, 2014. Studies on suitability of wheat flour blends with sweet potato, colocasia and water chestnut flours for noodle making. LWT-Food Sci. Technol., 57: 352-358.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2016 Asian Network for Scientific Information
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
