Effects of Extrusion Cooking on Food Quality Attributes, Storage Stability, and Inactivation of Bacterial Spores: A Review
Authors
-
Oluchukwu Margaret Mary Nwadi
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria
- Thomas M. Okonkwo Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2026.1.10Keywords:
Consumer, moisture, packaging, shelf-life, spoilage, water activityAbstract
The objective of this study was to review the literature on the definition and components of food quality, examine the storage stability of foods and evaluate the effect of extrusion cooking on contaminating microorganisms. Food quality encompasses the attributes that determine consumer acceptability, with consumers serving as the primary arbiters of quality. These attributes may be extrinsic (e.g., colour) or intrinsic (e.g., chemical composition). Food quality is typically monitored through standardized quality control tests assessing multiple parameters and is often enhanced through legislative frameworks that render non-compliance subject to legal sanctions. A major challenge for food processors is ensuring product stability during storage. Storage stability assessments are conducted to evaluate changes in product quality over time and appropriate packaging plays a critical role in enhancing stability and extending shelf life. Microorganisms pose significant challenges by causing food spoilage and foodborne illnesses. Raw materials may be exposed to various sources of contamination prior to extrusion cooking and inadequate hygienic practices may also render the extruder itself a source of contamination. Extrusion cooking contributes to microbial inactivation through the combined effects of high temperature, moisture content and mechanical shear within the screw, which can destroy microbial cells, enzymes, spores and toxins. Since food spoilage is predominantly of microbial origin, food processing primarily aims at preservation to prolong shelf life. Additionally, reduced water activity inhibits the growth of many microorganisms, particularly bacteria, thereby further contributing to product stability.
References
1. Fellows, P.J., 2009. Food processing technology. 1st ed., Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, United Kingdom, ISBN: 9781845692162, Pages:913.
2. Tanner, D, 2016. Food quality, storage, and transport. In: Reference Module in Food Science, Smithers, G., (Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp: 1-5.
3. Semercioz-Oduncuoglu, A.S. and P.A. Luning, 2025. Industry 4.0 technologies in quality and safety control systems in food manufacturing: A systematic techno-managerial analysis on benefits and barriers. Trends Food Sci. Technol., Vol. 163. 10.1016/j.tifs.2025.105144
4. Ortega, D.L., H.H. Wang, L. Wu and S.J. Hong, 2015. Retail channel and consumer demand for food quality in China. China Econ. Rev., 36: 359-366.
5. Dhamija, O.P. and W.C.K. Hammer, 1990. manual of food quality control: 6. food for export. 1st ed., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, ISBN: 92-5-103014-6, Pages:66.
6. Chinnadurai, K. and V. Sequeira, 2016. Packaging of cereals, snacks, and confectionery. In: Reference Module in Food Science, Smithers, G., (Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp: 1-8.
7. Gülçin, İ., R. Elias, A. Gepdiremen and L. Boyer, 2006. Antioxidant activity of lignans from fringe tree (Chionanthus virginicus L.). Eur. Food Res. Technol., 223: 759-767.
8. Tiwari, A. and S.K. Jha, 2017. Extrusion cooking technology: Principal mechanism and effect on direct expanded snacks – An overview. Int. J. Food Stud., 6: 113-128.
9. Awulachew, M.T, 2021. Understanding to the shelf-life and product stability of foods. J. Food Technol. Preserv., Vol. 5.
10. Taub, I.A. and R.P. Singh, 1997. Food storage stability. 1st ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, ISBN: 9780849326462, 9781420048988, Pages:560.
11. Boukid, F., S. Folloni, R. Ranieri and E. Vittadini, 2018. A compendium of wheat germ: Separation, stabilization and food applications. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 78: 120-133.
12. Sawhney, I.K., B.C. Sarkar and G.R. Patil, 2011. Moisture sorption characteristics of dried acid casein from buffalo skim milk. LWT. - Food Sci. Technol., 44: 502-510.
13. Correia R, Grace MH, Esposito D, Lila MA. Wild blueberry polyphenol-protein food ingredients produced by three drying methods: Comparative physico-chemical properties, phytochemical content, and stability during storage. Food Chem. 2017;235:76-85.
14. Singh, R.P, 2012. Shelf Life of Foods (including Food Losses). Distinguished Professor of Food Engineering, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California.
[Direct Link]
15. Nemes, S.A., K. Szabo and D.C. Vodnar, 2020. Applicability of agro-industrial by-products in intelligent food packaging. Coatings, Vol. 10. 10.3390/coatings10060550
16. Lyng, J., Y. Cai and T.F. Bedane, 2022. The potential to valorize myofibrillar or collagen proteins through their incorporation in an extruded meat soya product for use in canned pet food. Appl. Food Res., Vol. 2. 10.1016/j.afres.2022.100068
17. Rokey, G.J., B. Plattner and E.M.D. Souza, 2010. Feed extrusion process description. Rev. Bras. Zootecnia, Vol. 39. 10.1590/s1516-35982010001300055
18. Emin, M.A, 2016. Extrusion. In: Reference Module in Food Science, Smithers, G., (Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
19. Offiah, V., V. Kontogiorgos and K.O. Falade, 2018. Extrusion processing of raw food materials and by-products: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 59: 2979-2998.
20. Hernández, A., B.G. García, M.J. Jordán and M.D. Hernández, 2014. Natural antioxidants in extruded fish feed: Protection at different storage temperatures. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 195: 112-119.
21. Roman, L., M. Gomez, B.R. Hamaker and M.M. Martinez, 2018. Shear scission through extrusion diminishes inter-molecular interactions of starch molecules during storage. J. Food Eng., 238: 134-140.
22. Muthukumarappan, K. and G.J. Swamy, 2018. Microstructure and its relationship with quality and storage stability of extruded products. In: Food Microstructure and Its Relationship with Quality and Stability, Devahastin, S, (Ed.). Elsevier, Sawston, Cambridge, pp: 161-191.
23. Kharat, S., I.G. Medina-Meza, R.J. Kowalski, A. Hosamani, R.C. T. and G.M. Ganjyal et al, 2019. Extrusion processing characteristics of whole grain flours of select major millets (foxtail, finger, and pearl). Food BioProd. Process., 114: 60-71.
24. Yin, Y., J. Zhang, R. Fan, K. Zhu, X. Jiang and Y. Yang et al, 2023. Terbium-functionalized silver-based metal-organic frameworks for efficient antibacterial and simultaneous monitoring of bacterial spores. J. Hazard. Mater., Vol. 446. 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130753
25. Ascheri, J.L.R., 2024. Why Food Technology by Extrusion-Cooking? Discoveries Agric. Food Sci., 12: 110-144.
26. Krishna, G.V, 2017. Review on the role of food preservatives and its efficacy. J. Food Sci. Res., Vol. 2.
27. Arêas, J.A.G., C.M. Rocha-Olivieri and M.R. Marques, 2016. Extrusion cooking: Chemical and nutritional changes. In: Encyclopedia of Food and Health, Caballero, B., P.M. Finglas and F. Toldrá, (Eds.). Academic Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, pp: 569-575.
28. Hurst, W.C., P.T. Tybor, A.E. Reynolds and G.A. Schuler, 2010. Quality control: a model program for the food industry. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Georgia.
29. Burlingame, B. and M. Pineiro, 2007. The essential balance: Risks and benefits in food safety and quality. J. Food Compos. Anal., 20: 139-146.
30. George, R.V., H.O. Harsh, P. Ray and A.K. Babu, 2019. Food quality traceability prototype for restaurants using blockchain and food quality data index. J. Cleaner Prod., Vol. 240. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118021
31. Han, Y., S. Cui, Z. Geng, C. Chu, K. Chen and Y. Wang, 2019. Food quality and safety risk assessment using a novel HMM method based on GRA. Food Control, 105: 180-189.
32. Yang, Y., L. Wei and J. Pei, 2019. Application of Bayesian modelling to assess food quality & safety status and identify risky food in China market. Food Control, 100: 111-116.
33. Vaclavik, V.A. and E.W. Christian, 2008. Essentials of food science. 3rd ed., Springer New York, New York, USA, ISBN: 9780387699394, Pages:572.
34. Alli, I, 2003. Food quality assurance: Principles and practices. 1st ed., CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group), London, United Kingdom, ISBN: 9781135459987, Pages:176.
35. Trimigno, A., F.C. Marincola, N. Dellarosa, G. Picone and L. Laghi, 2015. Definition of food quality by NMR-based foodomics. Curr. Opin. Food Sci., 4: 99-104.
36. Biesen, A.V., C. Petit, E. Vanzeveren and N.V. Puratos, 2010. Sensory quality definition of food ingredients. In: Sensory Analysis for Food and Beverage Quality Control, Kilcast, D, (Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp: 186-202.
37. Zhang, H., Y. Lin, S. Cao, J.-H. Cheng and X.-A. Zeng, 2025. Artificial intelligence boosting multi-dimensional information fusion: Data collection, processing and modeling for food quality and safety assessment. Trends Food Sci. Technol., Vol. 163. 10.1016/j.tifs.2025.105138
38. Bagnulo, E., G. Strocchi, C. Bicchi and E. Liberto, 2024. Industrial food quality and consumer choice: Artificial intelligence-based tools in the chemistry of sensory notes in comfort foods (coffee, cocoa and tea). Trends Food Sci. Technol., Vol. 147. 10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104415
39. Bisht, B., K. Rawat, A. Vohat, N. Jangid, N. Singh and V. Kumar et al, 2025. Industry 4.0 digital transformation: Shaping the future of food quality. Food Control, Vol. 170. 10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.111030
40. Wijaya, C.H., W. Wijaya and B.M. Mehta, 2015. General properties of major food components. 1st ed., Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 9783642416095, Pages:1173.
41. Leonard, W., P. Zhang, D. Ying and Z. Fang, 2019. Application of extrusion technology in plant food processing byproducts: An overview. Comprehensive Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf., 19: 218-246.
42. Obaroakpo, J., I. Iwanegbe and A. Ojokoh, 2017. The effect of fermentation and extrusion on the microbiological composition of millet and defatted soybean blends. J. Adv. Microbiol., Vol. 2. 10.9734/jamb/2017/30966
43. Eze, V.C., N. Maduka, I. Ahaotu and N.N. Odu, 2019. Microbiological quality and shelf life of pickled African walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) preserved with lactic and citric acids. MicroBiol. Res. J. Int., Vol. 26. 10.9734/mrji/2018/45226
44. Luo, X., Y. Han, X. Chen, W. Tang, T. Yue and Z. Li, 2020. Carbon dots derived fluorescent nanosensors as versatile tools for food quality and safety assessment: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 95: 149-161.
45. Wani, S.A. and P. Kumar, 2016. Moisture sorption isotherms and evaluation of quality changes in extruded snacks during storage. LWT, 74: 448-455.
46. Bhatia, S.C., 2017. Food biotechnology. 1st ed., WPI Publishing, New York, USA, ISBN: 9781315156491, Pages:426.
47. Brennan, J.G, 2005. Food processing handbook. 1st ed., Wiley, Weinheim, Germany, ISBN: 9783527307197, 9783527607570, Pages:582.
48. Ogunmuyiwa, O., A. Adebowale, O. Sobukola, O. Onabanjo, A. Obadina and T. Keith et al, 2017. Production and quality evaluation of extruded snack from blends of bambara groundnut flour, cassava starch, and corn bran flour. J. Food Process. Preserv., Vol. 41. 10.1111/jfpp.13183
49. Imai, C., A. Mowlah and J. Saito, 1986. Storage stability of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) eggs at room temperature. Poult. Sci., 65: 474-480.
50. Ottaway, P.B, 2010. Stability of vitamins during food processing and storage. In: Chemical Deterioration and Physical Instability of Food and Beverages, Skibsted, L.H., J. Risbo and M.L. Andersen, (Eds.). Woodhead Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp: 539-560.
51. Mu, T.-H., H.-N. Sun and M.-M. Ma, 2019. Sweet potato snack foods. In: Sweet Potato, Mu, T.-H. and J. Singh, (Eds.). Academic Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp: 303-324.
52. Gong, A.-N., A.-M. Shi, H.-Z. LIU, H.-W. YU, L. Liu and Q. Wang et al, 2018. Relationship of chemical properties of different peanut varieties to peanut butter storage stability. J. Integr. Agric., 17: 1003-1010.
53. Ngamwonglumlert, L. and S. Devahastin, 2018. Microstructure and its relationship with quality and storage stability of dried foods. In: Food Microstructure and Its Relationship with Quality and Stability, Devahastin, S, (Ed.). Woodhead Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp: 139-159.
54. Kocherla, P., K. Aparna and D.N. Lakshmi, 2012. Development and evaluation of RTE (Ready to eat) extruded snack using egg albumin powder and cheese powder. Agric. Eng. Int.: CIGR J., 14: 179-187.
55. Ananingsih, V.K., A. Sharma and W. Zhou, 2013. Green tea catechins during food processing and storage: A review on stability and detection. Food Res. Int., 50: 469-479.
56. Lee, J.H. and M.J. Lee, 2008. Effect of drying method on the moisture sorption isotherms for Inonotus obliquus mushroom. LWT. - Food Sci. Technol., 41: 1478-1484.
57. David, O., E. Arthur, S.O. Kwadwo, E. Badu and P. Sakyi, 2015. Proximate composition and some functional properties of soft wheat flour. Int. J. Innovative Res. Sci., Eng. Technol., 4: 753-758.
58. Awolu, O.O, 2018. Rheological evaluation of cocoyam-bambara groundnut-xanthan gum composite flour obtained from the optimization of its chemical composition and functional properties. Rheol. : Open Access, Vol. 2.
59. Cheftel, J.C., M. Kitagawa and C. Quéguiner, 1992. New protein texturization processes by extrusion cooking at high moisture levels. Food Rev. Int., 8: 235-275.
60. Singh, S., L. Wakeling and S. Gamlath, 2007. Retention of essential amino acids during extrusion of protein and reducing sugars. J. Agric. Food Chem., 55: 8779-8786.
61. Fellows, P.J., 2017. Extrusion cooking. In: Food Processing Technology, Fellows, P, (Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, Cambridge, MA, pp: 753-780.
62. Makowska, A., D. Cais-Sokolińska and A. Lasik, 2014. Effect of technological factors on water activity of extruded corn product with an addition of whey proteins. Acta Sci. Polonorum Technologia Aliment., 13: 243-247.
63. Buerman, E.C., R.W. Worobo and O.I. Padilla-Zakour, 2019. Thermal resistance of xerophilic fungi in low-water-activity (0.70 to 0.80) confectionery model foods. J. Food Prot., 82: 390-394.
64. Copetti, M.V., A.O. Bernardi and M.V. Garcia, 2025. Food spoilage fungi: Main agents, sources and strategies for control. Adv. Food Nutr. Res., 113: 475-518.
65. Liu, Y., Y. Sun, Y. Wang, Y. Zhao, M. Duan and F. Jia et al, 2023. Inactivation mechanisms of atmospheric pressure plasma jet on bacillus cereus spores and its application on low-water activity foods. Food Res. Int., Vol. 169. 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112867
66. FAO/WHO, 1989. Report of the thirty third session of the codex committee on food hygiene. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy.
[Direct Link]
67. Nikmaram, N. and M.H. Kamani, 2015. The effects of extrusion cooking on antinutritional factors, chemical propertiesand contaminating microorganisms of food. Int. J. Farming Allied Sci., 4: 352-354.
68. Cazzaniga, D., J.C. Basilico, R.J. Gonzalez, R.L. Torres and D.M.D. Greef, 2001. Mycotoxins inactivation by extrusion cooking of corn flour. Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 33: 144-147.
69. Bullerman, L.B. and A. Bianchini, 2007. Stability of mycotoxins during food processing. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 119: 140-146.
70. Quéguiner, C., E. Dumay, C. Cavalier and J.C. Cheftel, 1989. Reduction of Streptococcus thermophilus in a whey protein isolate by low moisture extrusion cooking without loss of functional properties. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 24: 601-612.
71. Likimani, T.A., J.N. Sofos, J.A. MAGA and J.M. Harper, 1990. Methodology to determine destruction of bacterial spores during extrusion cooking. J. Food Sci., 55: 1388-1393.
72. Likimani, T.A. and J.N. Sofos, 1990. Bacterial spore injury during extrusion cooking of corn/soybean mixtures. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 11: 243-249.
73. Zepeda, C.M.G., C.L. Kastner, J.R. Wolf, J.E. Boyer, D.H. Kropf and C.S. Setser et al, 1997. Extrusion and low-dose irradiation effects on destruction of Clostridium sporogenes spores in a beef-based product. J. Food Prot., 60: 777-785.
74. Zhang, Y., N. Cao, X. Xu, F. Zhang, F. Yan and X. Tang et al, 2013. Relationship between soil and water conservation practices and soil conditions in low mountain and hilly region of northeast China. Chinese Geographical Sci., 24: 147-162.
75. Fraiha, M., A.C.D.O. Ferraz and J.D. Biagi, 2010. Determination of thermobacteriological parameters and size of bacillus stearothermophilus ATCC 7953 spores. Cienc. Tecnol. Alimentos, 30: 1041-1045.
76. Saalia, F.K. and R.D. Phillips, 2011. Degradation of aflatoxins by extrusion cooking: Effects on nutritional quality of extrudates. LWT - Food Sci. Technol., 44: 1496-1501.
77. Saalia, F.K. and R.D. Phillips, 2011. Reduction of aflatoxins in peanut meal by extrusion cooking in the presence of nucleophiles. LWT - Food Sci. Technol., 44: 1511-1516.
78. Hajnal, E.J., R. Čolović, L. Pezo, D. Orčić, Đ. Vukmirović and J. Mastilović, 2016. Possibility of Alternaria toxins reduction by extrusion processing of whole wheat flour. Food Chem., 213: 784-790.
79. Scudamore, K.A., R.C.E. Guy, B. Kelleher and S.J. MacDonald, 2008. Fate of Fusarium Mycotoxins in maize flour and grits during extrusion cooking. Food Additives Contaminants: Part A, 25: 1374-1384.
80. Castells, M., A.J. Ramos, V. Sanchis and S. Marín, 2009. Reduction of fumonisin B1In extruded corn breakfast cereals with salt, malt and sugar in their formulation. Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 26: 512-517.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Oluchukwu Margaret Mary Nwadi, Thomas M. Okonkwo
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
